This article was originally published on July 15, 2022.
Roman visitors to ancient Egypt often marveled at how differently women lived. Roman law only required that a man bring up his eldest daughter; he could let anyone else die. To the surprise of the Romans, the Egyptians had no common practice of infanticide of unwanted girls.
The participation of women in the economy has been another culture shock. Long before the Ptolemies took power, Egypt had extended the legal rights of women. A woman could choose her husband and, if she wished, divorce her and keep her dowry. Married, widowed, and divorced women were allowed to run businesses and lend money. Up to a third of the economy of Ptolemaic Egypt was owned by women.
Who are the female rulers who influenced ancient Egypt?
Women warriors led their troops into battle, strategizing and inspiring. Sometimes political and military leadership even belonged to women, who became strong and well-regarded leaders. Here are four women warriors who fought for Egypt.
Queen Ahhotep I
When this Egyptian queen died in 1530 BC around the age of 30, she was buried with a necklace with three pendants in the shape of a fly — A military honor. The fly pendants were large, about the size of a hand, and they symbolized hunting enemies. The flies also represented the tenacity of biting insects, meant to honor a relentless military leader within her.
An honor rarely granted to a queen, Ahhotep I earned this distinction on the battlefield. When her husband, the pharaoh (who was also her brother), died in battle against the Hyksos, an enemy believed to be foreign invaders, Ahhotep I would have took control of Egypt and his army. His leadership brought order to a country in turmoil — unifying his people and pushing back the Hyksos.
Inscription remembers his legacy and explains why she was worthy to fly at her burial: “The princess, the king’s mother, the noble woman who knows things and takes care of Egypt. She looked after her soldiers and protected them. She brought back her fugitives and gathered her dissidents. She pacified Upper Egypt and expelled its rebels.
Pharaoh Hatshepsut
In 1472 BC. AD, Hatshepsut ascended the throne, in power for 22 years. She was considered the second woman to hold the title of pharaoh, not queen. She was also the first woman to lead for decades. Others only held the title for a short time or served as regents on behalf of their young sons.
Hatshepsut was born the daughter of a pharaoh and married around the age of 12 or 13 to her brother. Many scholars believed he was the product of incest, which helped explain why he was ill for most of his young life. When Hatshepsut was widowed at 16, she claimed that the right to rule was hers, as the daughter of one pharaoh and the widow of another.
Hatshepsut and her mother, Queen Ahmose, ruled together in the early years. Ahmose had a no-prisoners mentality when ordering troops to crush uprisings. After a rebellion in present-day Sudan, Ahmose called for the slaughter of all participants except one of the chief’s sons, who was taken back to Egypt as a captive.
Hatshepsut foreign deletion learned of his mother, and this provided Egypt with a source of wealth. She organized at least four military campaigns in the kingdom of Kush, and it is believed that she traveled with her troops and gave orders, becoming one of the most recognizable female pharaohs of ancient Egypt.
She left a legacy of improved infrastructure and trade routes. His successor was intimidated by his popularity, erasing his likeness from statues and other memorials in hopes of undoing the high esteem in which his memory was held.
Queen Arsinoe III
Like other female warriors of ancient Egypt, Arsinoë III married her brother, the pharaoh. Ptolemy IV wanted the throne so badly that he killed his mother and brother. He wanted the power, not the job, however, and was known as a Ptolemaic party animal. His young wife, however, was much more serious, proving why she became one of the greatest rulers of antiquity.
Arsinoë served as queen from 223 to 203 BC. AD, and was most famous for leading troops in successful battles during the Fourth Syrian War. In 217 BC. J.-C., Arsinoë III and her husband leave with 55,000 soldiers to fight the Hellenistic kingdom of the Seleucids.
When the battle turned bad, Arsinoë III walked up and down the line shouting encouragement. She inspired the weary troops telling them to fight for their wives and children. She also offered them two goldmines for victory, and the performance bonus had a motivating effect.
Arsinoe was thought to have led a unit of troops as they drove back their enemy and retook Syria and Phenicia for themselves. She was an effective leader — so much so that the rebels murdered her when they came for her husband in a palace coup.
Queen Cleopatra VII
In 49 BC. AD, Queen Cleopatra VII fled Egypt for Syria when a power struggle with her husband (also her brother) threatened to become fatal. The pharaoh was only about 13 years old and his advisers were responsible for instigating the conflict.
While Cleopatra was in exile, she organized a group of mercenaries who helped her find her way to Alexandria. After forming a political alliance with the Roman general Gaius Julius Caesar (which soon became a personal alliance), they regained power from the pharaoh.
Queen Cleopatra was famous for her military leadership, best known for her failed campaign with Marcus Antonius, the Roman ruler defeated by rival Caesar Augustus (aka Octavian). His forces deceived the troops of Cleopatra and Marcus Antonius at the Battle of Actium and then at the Battle of Alexandria.
Although Cleopatra has long been blamed, some scholars attribute the loss to Marcus Antonius. He is remembered as a gruff and seasoned general, but Marcus Antonius had little military experience by Roman standards. The couple saw no way forward, and after the defeat they committed suicide to avoid falling into enemy hands.